第三章 早 期 兒 童 教 育 ，嬰 幼 兒 教 育 ©

    第三章 早 期 兒 童 教 育，嬰 幼 兒 教 育 © 


      家庭是孕育孩子的地方，學校是將孩童教育成為人的地方，兒童由家庭到學校是一個轉變。兒童由此開始一個新的，令人興奮的，風光秀麗的旅途，朝著應許的境界邁進。早期兒童教育就是這旅途，令到孩童身心愉快地生長發展，感受到人世間的溫暖，激勵向上心情，追求更好的將來，充滿希望，嘗到努力而成功的滋味，欣賞到同儕交往的樂趣。現時已有的早期兒童教育方案，都是朝着這遠景來設計執行的。
      現時的現象是朝氣逢勃，百端待舉的時候。有的民辦地區性的方案，如基督教〈男〉青年會托兒方案，有的官辦的方案，如HeadStart等，與其屬下的各類的方案一起，使幼兒安全，健康，身心各方面有均衡的發育生長。是可喜的現象。有的清理地盆：如麥笛二氏(McMullen andDixon(2006)之理論工作，統一化各嬰幼兒實踐方案之理論； 如 NAEYC(2008)機構搜集和一致共識其著名之 ＂恰當發展實踐＂方案，預備下一步工作。有的借鏡先進，如熱誒(ReggioEmilia)市（意大利一城市）方案，安排環境，務使幼兒發育生長興旺；如蒙氏（MontessoriProgram）更注重個別及團體學習。以上各種方案，在瑞普約翰(Roopnarine&Johnson2000)之著作，均有忠肯之述。統而言之，現時的現象是朝氣逢勃，不一而足，是一個好現象，為早期兒童教育前途樂觀.
      現時的早期童年教育可大致歸入两大類：兒童本位和教導〈老師〉本位。兒童本位認為兒童有特別的性智格，傾向，能力，若要引發兒童的動機，使兒童樂於學習，老師要站在協助地位，輔導兒童的身心發育成長。。教導本位則相反，認為老師要站在领導地位，教導兒童學習，纔能達到教育目標。這两途徑，方法各異，着重點對立，但出發點一樣，想教育兒童成材。問題是可不可以殊途同歸呢？
      這两大主流，是否能合而為一，是早期童年教育的一大挑釁。換句話說，由家庭來的兒童是不是能有一教育途徑能迎合本身的需要，而又能接受老師的教導，來適合身心發育生長的呢？答案是可能的，有的。這一個教育叫嬰幼兒教育，這嬰幼兒教育實在是早期兒童教育所期待的具體答案，是這本書所要講的。
      在此，我們需要思考一下這早期兒童教育這件事。兒童需要教育，毫無疑問。但是為什麼要講早期這句話，明顯地一定有教育愈早愈好這觀念。但教育愈早愈好這觀念，不知道出自何方，以至有早期兒童教育這一述語，又有這一大套方案，又有這長久的歷史？無論如何，這觀念一定沿於教育界。至於考究它是否正確，尚待商榷；至於有無效果，人都唯唯否否；至於如何實施，則爭先恐後，各有見解。莫衷一是。以致這早期兒童教育，淪落到難以收拾，難以統一的境地。其實，都是想一早就教育兒童。現在，這裏的嬰幼兒教育，已將這教育愈早愈好這觀念付諸行動，來教育嬰幼兒；實行這大原則，要經過教育的程序，嬰幼兒教育就是這樣的程序。這可說是難能可貴的創舉.
      這教育愈早愈好這觀念，考究之下，實沿於一原則，就是：先天後天，相輔相成的大原則。在此大原則之下，產生了教育愈早愈好這觀念。這是怎樣講的呢？
      教育愈早愈好這觀念，實出自先天後天，相輔相成的大原則。而這先天後天，相輔相成的大原則，是由明白大腦功能而來。自一九九○年美國國會指定為“腦的十年;”承認研究腦對人類的重要貢獻和大有希望的前途＂。腦科學家們蓄勢待發迎接待腦的世紀，二十一世紀。現時對 腦的認識(可參考鮑氏等人一書Bear et al. Neuroscience. 1996)知道腦是神經系統的主要器官，支配人的各種活動和行為，可以說是嬰幼兒能幹的發源地。。當嬰兒誕生時，這這腦器官基本上已安排就緒，等候使用。一旦由後天來的刺激，便啟動大腦的功能，產生各種行為；此是學習，學習之後，留下記憶。學習之結果，一是固結其固有之功能，使以後之學習更有效；或是修正神經系統，使以後之學習能適應。無論那種情形，腦機能要靠兒童早期之學習才能發展完成，發揮，及增進其功能；這種發展纔是真正的適合心身的發展。這就是能幹來源的統括過程，，也就是先天後天，相輔相成的過程，也就是教育愈早愈好這觀念的來源，更是這嬰幼兒教育的基礎。
      關於這先天後天，相輔相成的原則，這裏想舉兩個例子說明一下。先以視覺為例。視覺器官的功能，誕生時已準備就緒。生命開始時，由胚胎，發展到前腦，中腦及後腦。前腦內有視覺囊生出視覺梗及視覺杯。視覺杯發展為眼後之視網膜，視覺梗變為視覺神經細胞，以後伸展到腦中心（Thalamus,暫時翻譯為腦中心，是外界來的感覺知覺的關卡。）未到此關卡之前，神經細胞的索狀突起(VisualAxons）要有三個選擇，第一，要選擇正確的途徑（因人有兩個眼睛，兩條交錯，通道到腦中心），第二，索狀突起要伸到預定的腦組織，第三，要與正確的腦細胞生根。這三步都根據遺傳因子，一一完成。之後，由此再伸到大腦的視覺樞生根。這樣，視網膜到視覺樞的神經通道就此完成。這生長過程完全是先天決定的。
      視覺功能，與其他腦功能一起，先天準備好，等候後天使用。當嬰兒誕生時，眼睛收到外界來的刺激，進入視網膜，轉變為神經信息，到腦中心，視覺樞，和其他腦樞，開始視覺功能的運作。嬰兒第一次看到東西，第一次學習，看到媽媽。視覺經驗，在腦內留下痕跡，變為視覺記憶開始時的使用，固定神經網絡，使更快捷有效。以後的使用，亦會修改神經網絡，來應付新挑釁，這叫腦的可塑性。在孩子以後的學習，這腦的可塑性一（立體視覺要視覺樞的突觸經過調整纔清晰，這些神經網的調整，是依靠經驗而發展的過程，直有作用。由初步建立的母親影像起，以後，嬰兒慢慢地，由模糊的影像（立體視覺要視覺樞的突觸經過調整纔清晰，這些神經網的調整，是依靠經驗而發展的過程，是腦的正常發展，也是腦功能的正常發展）到能認到母親為止，這是嬰兒視覺能幹的表現。這是先天後天相輔相成的簡最單的例子。要注意的是：當腦功能一旦開始作用，正當的運用，不會妨礙，反而有助孩子正常的發展，這種發展纔是真正的適合心身的發展，更使孩子能幹。由此看來，足以證明，愈早教育愈好。
      下面再用言語的發展來說明這先天後天，相輔相成的原則。言語的發展，與視覺稍有不同，一定需要後天有意的栽培，方有結果。先天後天，相輔相成的原則，在言語發展的過程，亦看得很清楚。先天放下基礎，後天幫忙發展，結果是小孩得益。
      腦科學和醫學界有些新知識 Huttenlocher(1999) ，可以說明這件事。兒童早期，腦子裏神經細胞生長得特別旺盛，在言語發音樞，在此時期，嬰幼兒的言語能力出現，學習言語很有效，很快；相反，此時期過後，學習母語困難，學習外語也是。在醫學界人士中，現流行一術語，叫機會之窗，意思就是這個先天後天相輔相成的意思。在此，給予學習機會就是教育。在嬰幼兒時要好好地利用這些機會，就是我們早期兒童教育界要知道，又要實踐的事。
      在教室內，常常這樣講法，要常常和孩子對話，孩子的言語，就會進步。小兒科醫生笛氏 Dixon(1992)亦有此見解，謂言語能力，發孕於兒童早期，與環境有密切關系。這亦是先天後天相輔相成之意。
      在研究獲得言語的過程，布氏 Bloom (1998) 謂言語與兩因素，情緒社交之互動和認知發展過程，有錯綜複雜的連結。意思就是說，孩子的言語多姿多彩，特別在兩歲時，發展得很好，實際與後天環境，不可分離。有了對言語能力之了解，我們對先天後天相輔相成這原則，更有深切的認識。注意這情緒社交認知的發展，是我們教育界，尤其是嬰幼兒教育界所要關注之事。
      讓我們在此，用一個譬如，說明這早期兒童教育裏，两種由兒童本位和教導本位發展到極端的情形；從而指出：嬰幼兒教育實在是早期兒童教育所期待的具體答案。這個譬如叫

揠苗助長

      "在宋國，（宋，古代中國春秋戰國時的一個國家）有一個農民, 一直憂慮禾苗生長不够快, 不够好. 跑到田裏去, 把禾苗一條條都拉高起來。回家之後，對家人說，我今天叫禾苗生長得很快，現在我真是疲倦得要死。他的兒子跑去看個究竟，原來所有的禾苗都已經枯稿了。這故事繼續下去。說，很少農夫不關心禾苗發育生長的。不去為苗除草的，是以為無益處而不去做. 那些揠苗助長的，不但無益，反而有害

孟子公孫丑

   

這段文是從孟子，四書之一   

 孟子（380-289年）是中國的

哲學家和教育家。他的教導

確定和塑造中國教育,高達

孔子（公元前551-479）

         明顯得很，這譬如有三個意思，第一，每個人都想助禾苗生長，不助禾苗生長的極少。第二，不去為禾苗除草，以為無益而捨棄不幹的，亦有此情形。第三，揠苗助長，若躁急妄為，反為不美。你以為教導〈老師〉本位，老師為主，會不會發展到揠苗助長的地步呢？兒童本位的看法，兒童會自己來，這會不會發展到不去為禾苗除草的地步呢？那第一種怎麼樣？當然我們都想助禾苗生長得茂盛，到時候有豐收。當然我們都想助禾苗生長得茂盛，到時候有豐收。評定這教育是否合乎標準，要從三方面著手 ; 一要清楚認識嬰幼兒，三要有有效的教導。使幼兒身心有均衡的發展，達到全人教育的目標。下一篇，是講述這樣的教育。


劉 鍾 德 基
版 權 所 有   不 得 翻 印 ©
公 元 二 零 零 玖 年
聖 地 牙 哥　
美 國

Infant and toddlr Iducation : A Comprehensive Approach© (pending publishing).該書嬰幼兒教育©籌備出版中

    

婴幼儿教育指南

一個民族的需要教育，一個人也需要教育。越早越好。

Chapter Three, Infant and Toddler Education: A Comprehensive Approach

Home is a place where parents nurture their children; School, an institute for teachers to educate them into a useful person. As children enter school, it is a change. To give them a smooth transition from home to school, we have the go-between schools called early education centers or nursery schools. Children in these schools are treated differently from those attending regular schools. They can have the luxury of being cared for as if they are at home; but at the same time, they are given a foretaste of what school life looks like. Children from here are starting a new, exciting journey with great promise. They will be cultivated and inspired for a bright future.

Nowadays, early childhood programs are designed and implemented toward this goal. Although their approaches are all different, it is encouraging to find out that they are all heading for the well being of our young children.

Among them, some large scale federal programs such as Head–Start, or local community-run YMCA child care programs, are geared toward both care and development for young children. Some of them even include health care and social welfare schemes to make sure each child is given the chance to proper.

Some others programs, like NAYEC’s work in developing “consensus” in developmentally appropriate practice for different approaches to follow. Others such as the work of McMullen and Dixon (2006), in “unifying practices” to lay a common ground for care and education of infants and toddlers; Still some are introducing from other cultures philosophy and pedagogy, such as the Reggio Way of Italy and Montessori’s specific program to enrich this field of early education.

Of most programs mentioned, their tenets are discussed in detail in the work of Roopnarine, J.L. & J.E. Johnson, Approaches to Early Childhood Education (2000). All in all, early childhood education is flourishing to a degree that young children will eventually benefited.

Within most of the all the approaches in early childhood education, it can be grouped under two categories: child-centered and didactic (teacher-centered) approach. Recognizing specific characteristics of young children in their aptitude, inclination, and growth, the child-centered approach asks that a teacher is to be in assisting position in helping children to acquire skills and knowledge because children can invent their own and have no need of pushing them to learn; and in this way, the knowledge gained is real to them and useful. Just the opposite, the teacher-centered approach takes a different view: a teacher is to take charge in all the matters concerning their learning because the teacher knows best what is good for them; and in this way, the skills and knowledge acquired is real and useful. There are a lot of pros and cons between these two major approaches in early education.

It seems that these two approaches do not meet. Combining them is the biggest challenge in the field of early childhood education. Can they really be put together in educating young children? Is there a both-and middle ground approach? The answer is positive. Yes, there is one: Infant and Toddler Education. Infant and Toddler Education is the substance of what early childhood education is. And this volume is to going to present it below.

Children definitely need education; however, why do we stress the idea of earliness in educating them? No doubt, it must come from an idea that the earlier a child receives education the better will the child become. But where does this idea come from?

Surprisingly, we seldom take a pause to think about its where-from and its effect on young children as we are busy promoting early childhood education.

Substantiating the proposition that earlier a child receives education the better will the child become is not a difficult job now. The proof can be derived from the principle of complementation of nature and nurture that is being introduced here.

Understanding human brain sheds some light on this principle of complementation. Human brain has long been a mystery to us. However, with effort of century’s long research on human brain, we begin to understand its role in all human activities. Since the decade of the brain, designated by American Congress in 1990, neuroscientists are more prepared to welcome the coming century of the brain; it is in this enthusiasm that much progress will have been made in further understanding the brain. Simply put, human brain is recognized as the main organ of the nervous system that governs all our activities and behaviors; it can be thought as the source of competence of an individual. At the time a baby is born, the brain is ready to function. Once triggered by the stimulus from environment, the brain starts working, producing behaviors in respond. This is learning; and learning leaves traces in the brain’s neuronal circuitry that becomes memory. The result of this interacting, learning experience, can either strengthen the circuitry and make it more efficient or modify itself to adapt to the environment. Either way, the brain needs the interaction to perfect its functioning and that explains where the competence is developed. That modification of neural circuitry is called experience-development of the brain. This kind of development is really the kind of development that benefits the child’s mind and body. That is the way nature and nurture complementing each other for the good of a child. It also tells why early education is good for the child; what is more, it justifies this Infant and Toddler Education.

It might be necessary to explain this complementary principle here with two illustrations: vision and language developments.

Let us take vision first. At embryo, there are three vesicles from which forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain are developed. In forebrain, there are visual vesicles that later grow into optic stalk and optic cup. The cup turns into the retina and the stalk turns into visual nervous cells that later proliferate to thalamus, the perception entrance gate to the brain. The visual axons from one retina have to make three selections before arriving at the thalamus: choosing the right path at the crossing with other retina routes, getting to the right cerebral structure, and innervating the correct cell. All is done according to genetic code. After properly done, the cells now find their way to the visual cortex to complete the innervating. Thus the visual neural network from retina to visual cortex is built; totally determined by Nature; with other neural modalities available, the visual function is now ready for use at the time the child is born. Upon the stimulus from outside world, the involvement of nurture, the visual image coming through the eyeball becomes signals and get into the brain for proper reaction that shows up as behavior, and in this case, the baby sees and learns or the first time. This visual experience leaves a trace in the brain that becomes a memory in the brain. The first uses solidify the neural visual network and make it more efficient for later uses. Subsequent use may modify the network but the neural system can make adjustment to cope with new encounters. This network modification is called plasticity of the brain. It happens during the learning period of a child. It is the result of interaction of nature and nurture. It is in this way nature and nurture worked complementary to each other. As soon as the brain faculty starts working, putting it to work causes no hindrance to the child’s normal development; what is more, it will be properly developed. This kind of development is really the kind of development that benefits mind and body of the child；and the competence of a child is ever made better as a result.

With language development of a child, the complementary principle of Nature and Nurture is once again illustrated here. We are going to see much clearly that nature endowment essentially lays the foundation first, and nurture plays a development role later. Unlike vision development that needs a minimum help from environment, language needs a lot of help from nurture.

In language development, the emergence of language abilities is correlated to the phenomenon of “exuberant synapses” growth in early childhood . In this early period, Huttenlocher (1999) finds out anatomically the dramatic increase of synapses, connections of nervous cells in three area of the brain: in auditory cortex of Heschl’s gyrus, in language comprehensive area of Wernicke’s area in temporal lobe, and Broca’s area in frontal lobe. This exuberance emerges at the time as language faculties are emerging which can be identified in child’s behaviors. We see children are busy in using language in their daily life and learning is efficient and favorable. On the contrary, when synapses become less proliferated in later period, learning mother tongue or foreign language becomes more difficult.

In medical professional circle, a recently popular idea of “windows of opportunity” is there that reflects this idea of early education. Because in this period, learning is more efficient and favorable. This saying is in full support of the complementary principle of Nature and Nurture. Some of medical professionals wonder whether educators would use these golden opportunity to teach a child. Here, this volume of infant and toddler education is just doing that.

In classrooms, a common practice of keep talking to children is becoming popular. It has backups from research. Pediatrician Dixon describes all language development, and correlates it to environment during early childhood. There is another support from professor Bloom (1998) of Psychology and Education at Columbia University. She investigates the interaction between engagement (which is mainly environmental, book author) and effort (again environmental) for language development and contributes the development of language especially around the second year to the associations with people in emotional, cognitive, and social affairs. In short, environment plays a vital role on language development. In other words, nature and nurture work together for the well being of a child; and the earlier a child is taught, the better the child will be. Once again, the infant and toddler education is justified!

Having illustrated this complementary principle of nature and nurture, we are going to see a parable about early childhood education. We may expect the comparison of child-centered and teacher-centered approach. From these two approaches, we can see and appreciate what an authentic early education should be. One may find out later that the infant and toddler education presented here is just the right one for early childhood education.


Pulling shoots

"In Sung district, (Sung, a country in ancient China) a peasant has been worrying about his field of rice plants. The rice grows slowly. He becomes impatient for his crops to ripen. In desperation, he lifts the shoots so as to appear they have grown taller. After toiling for whole day helping his entire crops grow, he is home exhausted and perplexed. He tells his household: 'Today I become sick, after helping my rice plants to grow'. His son goes to see the result and finds that, because of his pulling, the rice plants are withering away.


Over the entire country, there are few people who do not help the growth of rice. However, there are those who quit weeding simply because they think no advantage in so doing. On the contrary, those who would expedite the growth do the pulling artificially. Thus, in lieu of doing good, the damage is done already."

This passage is taken from the Book Mencius, The four Book Reader. ,Mencius (370-289 B. C.) was a Chinese philosopher and educator. His teachings define and shape the Chinese education as much as that of Confucius (551-479 B. C.).


The educational implication of this excerpt is clear. There are three types of approaches in dealing with the rice shoots in the field: the one that helps, the one that does not care, and the one that cares too much. Of course, we all want to help; we all want them to prosper. In order to help them properly, we have to be strict with our approach. In gauging whether an approach is appropriate, there are three things we have to consider: we have to know the object, we have to have the right approach, and we have to know how to do. To reach the goal of a balanced development for our young children, we need to do these three things properly.

Copyright 2009 Tak-Ka Chung Lau

Is Tiger Mother approach to parenting Chinese approach?

Amy Chua has created a firestorm.

The author of the best-selling book Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother has  uncovered an unforeseen backlash with regard to her approach to parenting. And while the very name “Tiger Mother” invokes the image of a protective mother teaching and nurturing her cubs to grow up to become the feared cats of the jungle, the “Tiger” in the title refers to the personality of the Chinese mother.

An ancient Chinese parable rings the same bell.

“In the Sung district (a country in ancient China), a peasant was worried about his field of rice plants, which were growing too slow for his liking. Growing impatient for his crops to ripen, he gently tugged the shoots up, making them appear to have grown taller. After an entire day of tugging his rice plants up higher, he returned home exhausted and frustrated. He explained to his household: “Today I became sick while trying to help my rice plants to grow.” His son went out to see what his father meant by that, and found that due to his father’s “help,” the rice plants were beginning to wither away.“

Mencius (372-289 B. C.)

The story went on to say, there was another kind of peasant who did not weed the field, presuming it would make no difference to the rice plant. Of course his rice plants would be choked out by the weeds.

One extreme or the other—be it the one who pulls up his plants, or another does nothing—both create artificial environments that are less than ideal for the growth of the plant. A balance between the two extremes must be struck.

While many mammals (and yes, cats) share a common instinct with humans to protect and nurture their young, the similarities for the most part end there. Human mothers must take into account the individualities of her children – the fact that each child is wonderfully unique and needs to be educated to maturity in the context of his/her unique personalities.

This is the goal of the approach known as Infant Toddler Education